Chinese regional stereotypes

Source: Asian Survey, Vol. 5, No. 12 (Dec., 1965), pp. 596-608Published by: University of California PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2642652Accessed: 14/10/2010 02:18

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STEREOTYPES REGIONAL CHINESE EBERHARD WOLFRAM studied, been have often and ethnic stereotypes While regional and socio- historical is of special stereotypes Chinese regional of an analysis make use of distinct of today Chinese do the Not only interest. logical such on China-but, books in Western repeated stereotypes-often regional There- 2000 years. for at least literature in their can be found stereotypes of regional and change to study stability a possibility China offers fore, stereotypes. concern- stereotypes present-day was made to establish First, an effort known are so generally These China. Mainland of 18 old provinces the ing from of interviewees a sample to draw unnecessary it was considered that colleges in several Taiwanese students Ninety-seven population. the general out a ques- filled Chinese community the of and 13 members foreign-born and women men both were The 110 interviewees to them.' tionnaire given (Table various and from backgrounds parental China parts of various from from deviate did not San Franciscans traits given by the regional 1); the Taiwan. in the students by those given stereotypes included from Mainland families Most of the respondents Tai- of the home province their own concerning (68%) and all but three stereotypes about Taiwan) mentioned wanese (who had not been asked In gen- Chinese Taiwanese. of most of the origin place concerning Fukien, for knew stereotypes i.e., they answers, persons gave more younger eral, than men. The answers better gave way, women same In the provinces. most com- the least Chinese, Southern given by the were answers most complete be better seemed to respondents of the (Table 2). None Taiwanese plete by their home and including close to their home province the about informed provinces. other than about province, provinces, of the eighteen for eleven that, demonstrate The responses the questionnaire who circulated cere thanks to Professor (Mrs.) Yeh Ch'u-sheng Law the College of Cultural College, in the Evening School of the her students among to thanks my sincere wish to express College; I also and the Junior and Commerce stu- among his Sociology the questionnaire Professor Lung K'uan-hai, who circulated For help in March 1964. University, in the College of Law, National Taiwan dents Chao to Professor my thanks I wish to express questionnaires, the San Francisco with of California, Department of Oriental Languages, University Yuan-jan, Emeritus, contained were handed out in 1953. The questionnaires Berkeley. These questionnaires of and on the occupation of the interviewees origin on age, sex, regional information for each province was asked to state Each respondent the father of the interviewees. province. of the to be typical he believed which characteristics 596 my sin- 1 March 1964. I wish to express during The data on Taiwan were collected WOLFRAM EBERHARD 597 and clearly well-known established while the stereo- stereotypes exist, types for the remaining seven provinces-which mentioned less than were by 50% of the not respondents-are so safely established. The reasons for this will become clear as soon as we introduce the historical data. CHARACTERISTICS OF 110 INTERVIEWEES Age Sex Regional Origin2 below 25 25 and above unknown male female unknown North China Central China South China Taiwan unknown businessman professions government official crafts, farmers army unknown Total % of 54 40 6 58 39 3 22 44 13 19 3 24 23 20 14 12 6 TABLE 1 Father's Occupation Some of the traits which are mentioned are physical characteristics, the of be called majority traits, however, may psychological traits, including in the also those traits are which for expressed preference special professions or occupations. a standard of normally Usually, expression two words is used to describe a regional trait, but the same trait is often described in ORIGIN OF RESPONDENTS AND AVERAGE NUMBER OF PROVINCES FOR WHICH STEREOTYPES WERE STATED about: Stereotypes given Place of origin: North China Central China South China Total TABLE 2 North China Central China Taiwan South China 3.7 3.5 3.9 5.2 4.9 4.5 6.5 2.8 2.3 2.0 1.8 1.8 12.7 11.7 10.7 14.4 so that it was with other similar terms to combine several words, possible terms into one English Chinese term which covers the central idea. For instance, the Chinese adjectives \"elegant,\" \"fine,\" \"pretty,\" \"beautiful\" in the were combined term English \"pretty.\" China includes nine provinces of the Yangtse basin together with Yunnan, Kuichou, Szuch'uan. South China includes only the provinces Fukien, Kuangtung, Kuanghsi. 2 The term North China includes six provinces of the Huangho River Basin. Central 598 CHINESE REGIONAL STEREOTYPES TABLE 3 THE NUMBER OF TRAITS MENTIONED FOR EACH PROVINCE Province Number of respondents traits who mentioned province Number of Number of non- physical traits 1. Kansu 2. Yunnan 3. Kuanghsi 4. Kuichou 5. Kiangsi 6. Shensi 7. Anhui 8. Honan 9. Shansi 10. Hupei 11. Chekiang 12. Hopei 13. Fukien 14. Szuch'uan 15. Hunan 16. Kuangtung 17. Kiangsu 18. Shantung North China general South China general 29 31 36 38 44 44 46 58 60 68 75 78 79 80 86 89 90 110 93 90 69 65 91 86 92 108 99 146 141 143 193 203 216 201 204 294 278 372 359 323 42 41 63 60 63 71 71 88 96 102 128 108 161 105 135 175 180 205 202 1833 In listing the non-physical typical traits given for each province, it seemed appropriate to arrange the provinces in such an order that prov- inces with alike traits follow each other (Table 4). The distribution of these traits can then be summarized in the following way: First, there is a northern type which is most outspoken in its typical traits in the Shantung- Hopei area. These people are straight and honest, simple and enduring. Secondly, we have a Yangtse Valley type, most pronounced in Kiangsu- Chekiang. They are clever and sharp, cunning businessmen. there Thirdly, is the Southwestern type, with a center perhaps in Hunan, but also appar- ently including the southern part of Honan province. These are the emo- tional Chinese with violent temper. Fukien seems to be in between the Yangtse group and Kuangtung province. The Southwestern border prov- inces of Kuanghsi, Kuichou and Yunnan are underdeveloped and do not properly in any of these categories. belong Significantly enough, these provinces were the last to be permanently incorporated into the Chinese and still have empire minorities. significant non-Chinese Obviously, some the from the \"blurring\" occurs between types, resulting opinion-often mentioned in the questionnaires-that not all provincial borders are it is identical with the distribution of local traits. For instance, indicated that the in northern of the people Kiangsu, north Yangtse river, in Anhui, north as well as the of the to the are much closer people river, to 97 persons. ents, i.e., only 3 Questions for North and South China were given only to the Taiwanese respond- WOLFRAM EBERHARD 599 than to the Southern northern type Honan really Yangtse type. belongs is to Hupei, northeastern Fukien to the Yangtse Valley. Hopei exceptional for China's as it contains Peking which has been capital long periods and thus harbored all kinds of people. NON-PHYSICAL TRAITS STATED TO BE CHARACTERISTIC FOR CHINESE PROVINCES Province TABLE 4 % of Traits (in parenthesis the total non-physical traits given for the province) Frank and honest (26), good mannered (12), simple (10) Frank and honest (44), straight, simple and upright (42) Simple and honest (12), economical, business-minded (59), resolute (7) 4. Shensi Honest and sincere (21), resolute (17), enduring (14) 5. Kansu Honest and simple (26), enduring (36) 6. Honan Honest and straight (37), mannered (22), but with a violent temper (18) 7. Kiangsu Cunning, crafty, versatile (39), refined and luxury-loving (23), good in business (15) 8. Anhui Clever and sharp (14), good in business (23), simple and frugal (18) 9. Chekian Cunning, clever (26), unyielding and obstinate (20), good in business (16) 10. Kiangsi Profit-greedy businessmen (44), scheming (22), not good as friends (8) 11. Hupei Scheming, crafty, unreliable (72) 12. Hunan Emotional (34), heroic, military (29), upright (24) 13. Szuch'uan Violent temper (35), talk too much (31) 14. Fukien Petty-minded (21), cunning (12), like to take risks (9), clannish (8) 15. Kuangtung Like the new and like to take risks (30), clannish (16) 16. Kuanghsi Enduring, hard (40), backward in culture (24) 17. Kuichou Frugal and straight (31), poor and underdeveloped (30) 18. Yunnan Barbaric, not real Chinese (25), enduring and frugal (20) 1. Hopei 2. Shantung 3. Shansi summarizes views traits. The people Table 5 below concerning regional of the as tall-which corresponds northeastern are described provinces to to be pretty and fact.4 People from Chekiang are supposed established but seem not elegant-traits which have not untrue. been proved, entirely People from Szuch'uan and Hunan are described as eating very hot food, and the are characterized which is indeed Cantonese correct, (Kuangtung) in food. as much interested Due to the of relevant absence psychological it is difficult to for the tests whether China, prove reported psychological or not; but because traits are \"true\" of the existence of anthropological can be tested. at least a number of the traits The studies, physical reported or a reported is of problem whether trait reflects reality not, great import- and ance more attention should it. be given to 4E. von Eickstedt, Rassendynamik von Ostasien (Berlin: 1944), pp. 82-84. It is interesting to compare our \"stereotypes\" with the \"typical physical and psychological traits\" given by von Eickstedt and later non-Chinese authors. 600 C H I N ES E R EG I ON A L ST E R EOTY P ES that distinct phys- one fact, namely striking revealed The questionnaries not to be of and seemed rarely mentioned, only were ical characteristics for almost every province, color was mentioned skin For instance, interest. were or there by only one or two people, but either it was mentioned PHYSICAL TRAITS STATED TO BE CHARACTERISTIC FOR CHINESE PROVINCES Province Traits TABLE 5 to eat bread and wheat (17) (17); like Tall (40%), strong to eat onions (6), (23); like Tall (46), heavy-set bread and dumplings Tall (29); love to use vinegar (18) 3. Shansi to tall (38) Strong (38), medium 4. Shensi Tall to medium (15) (30), strong 5. Kansu Tall (33), strong (15) 6. Honan refined (21) Medium to small (38), delicate (17); women graceful, 7. Kiangsu Medium size (68) 8. Anhui pretty (33) Medium to small (31); women 9. Chekiang Medium to small (62) 10. Kiangsi hot food (10) Medium to small (59); like 11. Hupei and hot food (41) to eat Medium to small (33); like pepper 12. Hunan and hot food (30) Medium to small pepper (36); like to eat 13. Szuch'uan Small to medium (11) (52); slim 14. Fukien to eat (29), prefer unusual dishes (8) 15. Kuangtung Small (28); like and tender Small (36), slim (18) 16. Kuanghsi Medium (35) 17. Kuichou Medium to small (46) 18. Yunnan 1. Hopei 2. Shantung In general, is highly appreci- white skin (which statements. contradictory mentioned class) was more often high social of and regarded as a sign ated eyes the the form was mentioned: the eyes of for the North. Occasionally, to be small (Chekiang, Honan) or big (Shansi, Fukien), were supposed Kuangtung trait only for as an important but seemed to be regarded eyes Chinese In general, eyes. pretty and big, have deep were said to people who eyes as ugly, deep-seated eyes big, round and protruding regards literature or eyebrows The shape of the face, were mentioned nose, as beautiful. in the literature did not occur at all. Although hair and figure rarely; never omitted, feet is almost of the which describes a description women, in our survey. no our was made to feet reference habits. food can be made concerning interesting observation One quite the correlated philosophers 4th century Chinese B.C. the Since about the basic directions basic elements and five five with the five basic tastes one or several of the basic tastes .5 In today's stereotypes, (Table 6) Spekulation der Chinesen der Han-Zeit (Berlin: 1933). zur kosmologischen Beitrage on Table 3 (pp. 48-50) would lead to even more of the information study A further elements and regional characteristics. theory of the parallels between the 5 A detailed Eberhard, cosmological theories is in Wolfram discussion of the different WOLFRAM EBERHARD 601 of the food of one or several provinces, occurred as characteristic although to the direction for did not correspond some traits typical of a province Table 6), and al- was placed in brackets, (the province these provinces is well where people love bitter food-which though there is no province 6 THE FIVE BASIC TASTES, DIRECTIONS, AND PROVINCIAL PREFERENCES TABLE Taste: Direction: Provinces: sour east (Shansi) bitter south - sweet center Kiangsu Kiangsi Fukien (Kuangtung) sharp (hot) west Shensi Kansu Hupei Szuch'uan Hunan (Chekian) (Kiangsi) salty north Hopei Shansi Honan (Chekiang) (Kiangsi) of vinegar are fond province where people understandable-and the only good for are quite East, the correlations than in the is in the North rather can here be raised The question and salty food. \"sharp\" (hot), sweet, five elements (which domi- whether ideas from the theory of the stemming state- upon the stereotyped nats folk medicine) an influence have exercised is a taste and directions between food the correlation ments, or whether at the were regional already or whether habits the food chance relation, our 2500 years ago. From time i.e., some theory was established, when the the last possibility. to reject it seems reasonable present knowledge have resulted from a broadest stereotypes generally known, The most to both physical and non- in respect North and South distinction between Chinese different from South That North Chinese are quite physical traits. themselves and the Chinese observers, by many foreign has been asserted honest and as tall, strong, feel is described way. The northerner the same delicate, smart, who is supposed to be small, southerner brave, against the which traits are facts physical and gentle (see Table 7). Here again the for the correspond The character traits proved. have been statistically It is interesting Peking) and Shantung. North to the areas of Hopei (with Nan- for to the areas of Kiangsu (with the South, they correspond that, China, and not to the i.e., to Central and Chekiang, king and Shanghai) like a \"sur- This looks China. of which call South China we would now part vival\" from the time largely inhabited by the real South was still when north- Peking and Nanking or earlier The difference between non-Chinese. is still and ern and as K'ai-feng Hang-chou, China, such southern capitals of to every it is known in the minds of Chinese; for example, deep-seated of and of acting and a southern style that there is a northern theater-goer In speaking of is also a northern style painting. music. There and southern The differ- the Canton area. to mean of used \"south\" has never been styles, in broad also because, is interesting ence seen between North and South 602 CHINESE REGIONAL STEREOTYPES lines, it repeats the north/south dichotomy of stereotypes existing in many of Asia, Europe, and North the northerner is countries America, where from We know cases characterized as small, quick, cunning, and unreliable. within a very short like California that such dichotomies can crystallize in the arise case of around period of time. As apparently China, they may but the real reason the populations of two capitals or population centers, I distinctly seems still to be unknown. Although remember north/south in the I have been not able to collect statements Chinese literature, earlier It is in China. enough data to present a historical study of this dichotomy interesting that, in the historical material which we are going to introduce now, neither physical nor food habits are mentioned. All traits occurring in these texts are psychological, as one would say in modern terminology. TABLE 7 STEREOTYPES OF NORTH AND SOUTH CHINA of traits mentioned) (In percentages Physical traits North tall 41 strong 20 wheat eater 16 miscellaneous 23 frank and honest brave strong and enduring upright miscellaneous 100 South 39 small 21 delicate rice eater 20 20 miscellaneous 30 17 13 11 29 smart 61 cunning, scheming, 14 gentle, compliant miscellaneous 25 100 100 Character traits 100 since the 4th regional Probably century B.C.,6 the Chinese have observed the traits and have formed stereotypes. The first of the standard histories, 100 B.C., already contained of regional Shih-chi, written around a number in the stand- stereotypes context of its chapter on geography. Subsequently, ard histories down to the dynastic history of the Sung (960-1278) recorded such of provinces after that no longer stereotypes; time, stereotypes were in the in almost local gazet- reported dynastic histories. However, all the one teers finds of of counties and stereotypes units smaller than a province, districts. One gets the impression that historians after the Sung period found it inappropriate for whole they rec- to generalize provinces because as a con- ognized the variety of types in each province. This may be seen of on the levels comitant the increasing individualization local and personal in of to have the Sung and post-Sung periods. Each small part China began in the of its historians, although own face and characteristics, at least eyes of to live in the minds the broad continued average regional stereotypes people. 6 later. to the We refer here Kuan-tse text, mentioned WOLFRAM EBERHARD 603 for I have put together (Table 8) the stereotypes the Han reported period (representative for the time around the of our era), the bginning Sui period (580-618), and the Sung period (960-1278). There are also some data for the in-between periods; in addition there are statements in local gazetteers of the Ming (1368-1644) and Manchu (1644-1911) peri- ods, where reference is made to a province as a whole or to the most \"typ- ical\" part of a province. Finally, I used the statements in the work of Kuan-tse, philosopher and statesman, who is supposed to have written in the 7th century B.C. However, the book ascribed to him is certainly of later origin, and, besides, comprises parts of a different age; the chapter containing the regional stereotypes may have been written during the 4th B C. at most, century but in any case it is most probably earlier than the Han-sku which contain the Han period (206 B.C.-9 A.D.) stereotypes. In listing the historical material, the provinces Kuanghsi, Kuichou and Yun- nan were left out, because there are no data on stereotypes for these prov- inces whose inhabitants were largely non-Chinese. For some of the other provinces there are also no data in the Sung and pre-Sung histories, for the same reason; but there is some information starting with the 13th century. In comparing the stereotypes of the early time with the present-day stereo- types, we have to keep two points in mind. First, the reported stereotypes of early periods were the considered opinion of committees of state histor- ians, but not the result of surveys, as are the modern data. Secondly, the of borders provinces and other units have changed, so that an old province may now correspond to parts of two or more present-day provinces. I have tried to find the best identifications.7 Some of our interviewees pointed out, rightly, that in some therefore, provinces, the north and the south or the west and the east are different. This is borne out by a comparison between the modern and the historical stereotypes: as units of stereo- present-day provinces do not always appear types, but even of the units. provinces early periods were not necessarily Let me mention a few examples: Shantung is by no means uniform. Its north, which is the base of of has the stereotypes today, is close, and always been to Hopei. Its south close, belongs with North-Kiangsu, North-Anhui, East-Honan. Honan also has never been a real unit. Its south really belongs to Hupei, its east to Shantung, is similar its west to Shensi. Shansi's south to Honan's north and Hopei's south. I take In making such statements, influ- communications as my main criterion, and communications, are again, enced Kansu and North of the country. by the geography Thus, Shensi, for Shansi com- form one unit, because the area suitable area is a steppe munication all by animal, not by boat, and geographically fairly uniform, covered with less. Hupei and the northern part of Hunan form another in identifying data in the Shih-chi 7Because of the difficulties the geographical with modern which refer back to a much earlier time than the time of the text, in Table 8. we have not included Shih-chi stereotypes provinces, ON Ena CO 0. a) C' .0 0 - COd L 00~ PT ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~0O ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c 0 C) 0 - 00- o 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 )CD0 W 0'E 00 .0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Cs it 0 OCO. O En.), ' C)~ 0 00 C.) S0.o oo~~~~~~~~~~~~~ C 0 o5 Z 0d COCO O WO0A o ~ 04 I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ > )0 -~~~~~~~~~~b Qfo Cj 0 C4) n. 0.. 0 0 ) C) 0 0co-li U 1 8 $~. COU 0 )COWO. ~0 a C . .-En4 -% W C's w 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ H 4 0=- 4U O 0 o U/) 44400.j 0 04)W 0 cn .54 . a . j 13-~~~~~~C 3 : E Cl) CO C 4) COO o,~~~~~~~~~S~~~j.5 5 C. (D 0.- CO> U 0..-O.0 U CO;0 U Oq 0>4 . 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W 0 IIN .00C~~~~~~~ IC~~~~~~O N dN ~~~~ ~~~~~~NCCC N.~~~~~ N N 0 NN .ON N~~~~~~~~~~~~O 5 N~~EnU bN D N0 Q 0 cd -4 N 0 0 ~ ~~ *N N o 0 N >0 O pl a u - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 0 Cd 0~~~~~~~ C W jU. 000 - 4 5 N * 3!.io N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~O INN- NO ~~~~~b N~~~~~~o c N -p . 0) N ~~~~x.0- OS cl~ C c N0 -O 0 .> N OS WA CNC' bN (n~~~~-o-S ON Pk 0~ 00~~~~~~~~~*N 0 N04 ~ ~ ~ ~ N 0O !~!- 0 N N 0N 0 o 0 o i4 L rf S- Cl) 0 0 N OA ~ 0 0. p 0 0 0. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ F0 c13 ~ 0 N I ~ 0 E- Abi . ' i . ' ~~~~~n 606 CHINESE REGIONAL STEREOTYPES the area of the and its two unit: northern and drainage Yangtse big south- ern tributaries, while South Hunan is closer to Kuangtung and, of course, Kuanghsi and Kui-chou, all areas of dense, almost tropical growth and many smaller rivers and creeks. Apart from these considerations, three points are in order here. First, if allowance is made for these shifts and overlappings, essentially the stereo- types have changed little since 1200, and many have not changed at all since the earliest time. Since they survived such long periods, the question arises, whether these stereotypes can really be regarded as \"prejudices\" or whether de facto \"national they express characteristics.\" We have to remem- ber that the educated Chinese knew what the books said about the people of certain provinces, in all likelihood, and that they treated them accord- ingly. This may have introduced a feed-back mechanism which tended to make the people behave as they were expected to behave. Secondly, Chinese sources occasionally, though not always, into the biographies insert of famous men remarks on their character; usually only a few terse words are used and often these words are the very terms occurring as regional stereo- types. Do such remarks on the character of a man in historical texts really de- scribe the individual or is their purpose to characterize men the as a \"typ- ical\" product of his region? I have not made more than a few tests, but I think it is not impossible that in a number of cases, apparent individual traits are regional traits. On the other hand, there are cases in which defi- nitely personal traits are given and not regional characteristics. In each case, however, we should be careful not to interpret every psychological trait reported about an individual as really describing the individual. Another area which should be investigated is the Chinese drama: Are heroes who have certain character traits made natives of the area for which this trait is the stereotype? The third point is the following: If people have changed so relatively little over such long periods, to what degree can we expect them to change in the future? I think one must keep the regional stereotypes and their in mind stability when one wishes to study the attitudes towards change among the Chinese who continue of in to be conscious differences regional attitudes and behavior. Chinese writers for have had different local differences the explanations of In some people. of cases, incidents are seen as the cause. Certain history concepts taken from the have tended to make the early literature Chinese inclined to ascribe certain For instance, qualities to certain provinces. be- cause of the sentimental Ch'u Yuan and his followers which tz'u-poetry in of the (3rd Ch'u even a Chinese, century B.C.) developed country today, in speaking of Hunan (the modern on Ch'u territory), province of thinks the emotional, connects sentimentalism and sentimental poetry and thus with Hunan. The province Szuch'uan with the emotionalism is connected B.C. and his love of music Szu-ma Hsiang-ju of late 2nd post the century and adventure. of \"empty and still His poems words\" were full today, WOLFRAM EBERHARD 607 Szuch'uan is the province of the successors and imitators of Szu-ma Hsiang- of ju. The elegant girls the province of Kiangsu are connected with the story of a local king, many centuries before our era, who had a love for slender, tender girls. The province Shantung is connected with Confucius (6th century B.C.) who was born in what is now Shantung. The province Honan was the \"center of the world,\" according to ancient cosmology; thus, its to people are be harmonious supposed and all-accommodating. Finally, the Chinese had a cosmological-medical theory, much like the ideas of Hippocrates in Greece. We have already referred to the relation of the five directions to the five tastes. The text Kuan-tse explains the regional of in the differences differences of people by character the water in different of parts China. Other authors to the refer theory of the five elements. Ac- to that for example, cording the to the theory, West, belongs element metal. Metal is sharp and cutting; therefore the food is \"sharp,\" cutting (we say in English translation \"hot\" which is unfortunate because in Chinese \"hot\" refers only to temperature and is connected with the element \"fire\" and the of the South), and the of the people metal, i.e., West, are cutting, killing, i.e. they like to fight. The South belongs to the fire. People of the South are, and temperamental. The North is water, therefore, fiery cold weather. People of the North are cold, stern, slow, straight. The Center corresponds to the of earth, and Center are harmonious, people the well-balanced, with- out The East belongs to the element eccentricities. with the wood, concept of of the East like to change.8 growing, changing. People In some cases, the character of people of a region has been derived from the of the philologically most ancient names areas. For instance, the area comprising Anhui Hupei, northern Hunan, and Central was called in texts to 400 B.C. Philologists have \"Ching\" prior explained that ching of \"strong\" of that really has the meaning (ch'iang). Accordingly, people area are \"strong-headed\" and Hupei so described. The people are, indeed, lower Yangtse area was once called \"Yang,\" which has been explained as there are to having the meaning \"expand.\" Consequently, people supposed This scholastic with words does not work be expansive, out-going. playing nine of China which for all the ancient existed from provinces supposedly to the of dawn and mythical ages down history. Yet, at least for Ching in the have been minds of since Yang, these explanations people probably if much earlier. A question in a similar not since arises pre-Christian times, whether we have here a simple play with words as above, or way namely to the because of the name was character of its the whether given province the characteristics of at least some were If the latter inhabitants. true, older than our earliest texts be as much as five centuries provinces might 400 B.C. from around and normally Chinese In general, philosophers always praised stability much information about stereotypes, in the does not contain ments, although Huang-ti a medical in existence at the time of the beginning of our nei-ching, classic, probably were to in different directions. different era, temperaments assigned people 8 Classical Chinese is also based upon the which of five literature ele- medical theory 608 CH INESE REGIONAL STEREOTYPES to them, change led to degeneration detested change9 because, according to progress. the whole dogma of Confucianism and not Yet, paradoxically, in the will the idea that people, if only instructed right way, is built upon in our date: the southern the provinces change for better. This is visible called \"barbarian\" or \"superstitious\" meant had (which that they were of beliefs and customs Confucianists disapproved). Or they were which the the I have put together described as \"underdeveloped,\" a term in which hard conditions of higher statements of life, simplicity, absence poverty, In the of and lack course of the centuries, the barbarian culture, education. and underdeveloped of Central China (after about 800 A.D.), provinces of the 1800), moved out of this then the provinces South (probably after and today the three Southwestern border provinces are still category, only of the central provinces was what \"underdeveloped.\" This development in the elimi- Chinese philosophers would consisting regard as \"progress,\" nation of traits which were not Chinese. of to Chinese Other were the result writers. migrations, according changes that a certain area has no specific The texts we have used, explain repeatedly from in as immi- another character traits area were brought because people In all in this respect were the capitals of China. grants. Most conspicuous it is emphasized in the texts that here people from all cases of capitals, of flock were even into the China sometimes, people brought parts together; around a capital are never regarded areas as \"typi- capital by force. Thus, to another once the was shifted part capital cal.\" But it was believed that to its old\" customs. of the the return \"good, country, province might also plays a role in Density of population, according to the writers, if in and around a capital, becomes the very change: population, especially to give up farming and go into business. This-it is dense, people tend make them scheming. dishonest, luxury-loving, cheating, assumed-tends to from the life simple, morally good This is related to the supposed change the to the and morally underlying questionable life, with complex, difficult, to the farmer and landlord-scholar, is superior idea that the village-dweller, it should the and craftsman. be men- the merchant Perhaps city-dweller, texts never mention racial factors, that Chinese tioned serious historical case as a number of Chinese clans have the this could been although easily tribes had clan their and of the assimilated legends tracing many indigenous It should have to been to these to animal ancestors. tempting assign origins to the ancestral traits attributed character which are animal, usually people in of The results of can be found discussions nations. as occasionally foreign of Chinese should stimulate this historical regional stereotypes analysis in The results societies. non-Western research similar may other, preferably of national of concepts character and their to the discussion contribute development. 9 in Wolfram Eberhard, Social Mobility in Traditional China See the discussion 5-10. (Leiden: 1962), pp. Berk- of California, of Sociology, University WOLFRAM EBERHARD is Professor and 1964. in Taiwan in 1960, 1961, eley. He did field work